1. Leadership in the Church
2. Authority and Leadership Authority in the Church
3. Gifts and Ministry of Women in the New Testament

The authority of the church, according to the New Testament, applies to carrying out its mission in the world, to formulating right doctrine, to discerning faithful practice, and to providing appropriate leadership. Some of the following guidelines on the authority of the church would also apply to the areas of mission, doctrine, and practice. They focus, however, on the nature of church authority and leadership authority in the church.

A. Leadership in the Church

The New Testament does not give one fixed form of leadership in the early church or for all times and places. Nevertheless, the form of leadership in the church is not arbitrary or unimportant. Rather, there are several characteristics of leadership in the New Testament which reflect a distinctive type of leadership in the Christian community. These characteristics are repeated throughout the New Testament and are basic for any pattern of leadership in the church. They include:

1. All members of the church are given a gift or a ministry to exercise. Leadership in the Christian church, therefore, takes place in a community where all members are called to exercise their particular gifts and ministries, 1 Corinthians 12:7 and Ephesians 4:7; see also 1 Corinthians 12.

2. There are diverse ministries in the New Testament. This means that leadership in the church should normally be given by several differing ministries. In the New Testament these included apostles, prophets, teachers, pastors, helpers, administrators, etc. Apostles as well as prophets, teachers as well as pastors, provided leadership in the New Testament Church. This does not mean that everyone is a leader. Nor does it mean that no one gives leadership. It means that several ministries give different kinds of leadership. 1 Corinthians 12; Ephesians 4; Romans 12:6-8; 1 Peter 5; Acts 20; 1 Timothy 3:1ff., 5:17ff.; Titus 1:5f., 2:2ff.

3. In the New Testament, each ministry is normally shared by several persons rather than vested in only one person. Just as the one Spirit works in all for building up the Christian community, it is fitting that several share the same ministry. The examples of leadership ministries in the New Testament churches repeatedly refer to several persons sharing the same functions even on the local level. For example: the apostles in the Jerusalem congregation, the seven in the Jerusalem congregation, the prophets and teachers in the Antioch congregation, the elders in the Ephesus congregation. 1 Corinthians 12:4-11, 27-31; Galatians 2:9; Acts 6; Acts 13:1; Acts 20:17.

4. In the New Testament, the terms "elders," "overseers" or "bishops," and "shepherds" or "pastors," refer to the same ministry. The term "elders" was borrowed from the language of the Jewish synagogue. The word translated as "overseers" or "bishops" describes the same ministry in a functional way. The word translated as "shepherds" or "pastors" describes the same ministry in a figurative way (using the image of sheep and shepherds).

These persons shared in the oversight of a local congregation. There were normally several elders, overseers, and pastors in a local congregation. Some of the elders, bishops, and pastors were also teachers. This means that even among those who shared this ministry, it varied according to their gifts and calling: Ephesians 4; 1 Timothy 5. Those who shared this ministry did not have to fit into an "office" which required exactly the same functions from everybody. By sharing in this ministry according to their gifts, each complemented the others and was complemented by them.

The ministry of elders/bishops/pastors in the New Testament comes closest to what we usually mean today when we speak about leadership in the local congregation. It means taking initiative to help the congregation find direction. It includes enabling many gifts and ministries to work together in congregational life and in witness and mission. Some who share in this ministry are called to teach or preach. Some have the gifts and skill of pastoral care, some of coordination and administration. This ministry of leadership oversight is needed in each local congregation.

In summary, these four characteristics of New Testament leadership (1-4 above) are based on the work of Christ and the Holy Spirit. According to Ephesians 4:8, Christ's saving work and his present lordship include giving gifts to each in the church. The whole body works properly, becomes mature, and reaches the fullness of Christ as many shared ministries work together in the church. These characteristics are described as the work of the Holy Spirit, in 1 Corinthians 12, and as participation in the body of Christ, in Romans 12. Because these characteristics are based on the work of Jesus Christ and the Holy Spirit, they are not limited to first-century Christians. They remain for the church which seeks to be faithful today.

B. Authority and Leadership Authority in the Church

In human society and social groups, authority usually means the right to exercise power over others or to compel them to act in a certain way. It may be based on a strong tradition and the presence of an elite which rules by preserving the tradition. Or authority may be based on a set of laws which apply to everyone, but are interpreted by experts, who have the "office" of governance. Or authority in social and religious groups may center in forceful personalities with a strong sense of vocation. They may be accepted by many followers or may impose themselves on others by the power of their personality. Sociologists call these three types of authority in human societies "traditional," "legal," and "charismatic."*

Sometimes authority in the church is similar to these types of authority. But it should have a distinctive character because of its origin and New Testament instructions for its exercise. The authority of the church comes from Jesus Christ who gives it the right and power to act in his name. Tradition is important, but the church cannot create or maintain her authority primarily by appealing to a long tradition. Furthermore, a common way of life is important. But the church cannot create or maintain her authority primarily by making rules of conduct which a few people enforce. Finally, some people have more powerful personalities than others. But the church cannot create or maintain authority primarily by unquestioning acceptance of unique personalities who demand personal loyalty.

In the church, authority comes from Jesus Christ who is present as the Head of his body. The Holy Spirit sustains this authority by working in and through the Christian community. This authority reflects the life of Jesus Christ in the Christian community. It is an authority where all members contribute to the upbuilding, well-being, and mission of the congregation by exercising their gifts. Genuine authority is therefore present or absent as the church conforms to or is unfaithful to the "mind of Christ" revealed in Scriptures and discerned through the leading of the Spirit.

This means several things for authority and leadership authority in the church:

1. The authority of the church is primarily corporate rather than individual. Jesus Christ gives it primarily to the Christian community as members exercise many gifts and ministries to learn the mind of Christ, to grow toward maturity in him, and to act on his behalf on earth (Ephesians 4; 1 Corinthians 12; Matthew 18). This happens in many settings. It especially includes times when the believing community gathers around the Scriptures under the guidance of the Holy Spirit to worship, to discern God's will, to exercise mutual discipline, and to make decisions.

2. Leadership authority in the church should be expressed in serving one another rather than in lording it over others. Jesus taught his disciples to exercise leadership by taking the initiative to serve rather than to rule (Mark 10:42-45; Philippians 2:5-8, etc.). By his own example, he demonstrated servant leadership. Therefore, the main issue about authority in the church is not whether it is based on tradition, or guarded by a system of rules and regulations, or centered in powerful personalities. Most important is the way in which people exercise authority in the church. Servant leadership includes:

--Growing in faithfulness to Jesus Christ as the Lord who was with us as servant.
--Meeting others' needs and acting for their welfare.
--Encouraging and helping others to exercise their gifts and ministries so that all grow toward fullness in Christ together.
--Granting those who are served the freedom of corporately and voluntarily accepting, rejecting, or modifying the direction leaders are moving in rather than coercing them to follow.
--Being single-minded and having clear vision while refusing to dominate others--even "for their own good." --Speaking the truth clearly and fearlessly in love without duplicity.

The servant leadership which Jesus taught and exercised thus expresses spiritual strength rather than weakness.

The New Testament words for leaders reflect the servanthood nature of leadership. The Greek word for "first one" or "one who rules over" is used for Jewish and Roman leaders. It is not used for Christians. And the Greek term which comes closest to the English term "leader" refers always in its noun form and usually in its verb form to Roman and Jewish leaders. Sometimes it refers to Christian leaders. The way it is used can help us understand the difference between servant authority and the authority of rulers.

Hebrews 13:7 admonishes the believers: "Remember your leaders, those who spoke to you the Word of God...." The passage warns against being taken in by "diverse and strange teachings." It says rather that the trustworthy leaders are those who have spoken God's Word and whose lives have demonstrated their faith. Verse 17 tells Christians, "Obey your leaders and submit to them" because they are "keeping watch over your souls as those who will have to give an account." In the first example, the leaders' authority comes from their having spoken God's Word and from having lived according to it. In the second example, believers are admonished to obey those who have been given oversight ministry. The word "obey" used here does not mean blind obedience to a ruler, but being persuaded because of trust and confidence. Christians are thus called to submit willingly to those having leadership ministries because they are persuaded to do so not simply because they have no choice in the matter. See also Hebrews 13:24; Acts 14:12; Acts 15:22.

Some translations of 1 Thessalonians 5:12 say, "We beseech you to respect those who ... are over you in the Lord .... " A literal* translation would read "those who ... stand before you .... " Servant authority is not based on ruling over. It involves leading out, taking initiative in serving others. In this passage it may refer to the elder/overseer/pastor ministry.

3. The shape of leadership authority in the church is one of mutual submission. This is different from a hierarchical or egalitarian pattern. In a hierarchy, leadership authority starts at the top and is imposed on and/or accepted by subordinates. In an egalitarian pattern every individual has the same authority. The New Testament vision and practice is nonhierarchical without downgrading authority. It is corporate without downgrading individual uniqueness. For example:

As an apostle, Paul was called to give leadership in founding and teaching in churches. But he was also sent out by the prophets and teachers together with the congregation at Antioch. He remained accountable to that congregation. He thus submitted himself to others who were exercising their ministries in the church. Simultaneously he asked others to accept his apostolic authority. (See 2 Corinthians). All sought to submit to Jesus Christ, and to each other out of reverence for Christ.

According to 1 Corinthians 14, prophets exhorted the gathered congregation. Other members of the congregation were to submit themselves to the prophets who provided this kind of leadership. But the congregation was apparently also to test the prophets. The prophets thus exercised authority in mutual submission.

The elders/bishops/pastors carried the oversight and sometimes the teaching responsibility in the local New Testament congregation. But other members of the congregation could also "correct" the elders by using the procedure outlined in 1 Timothy 5:19-20. Thus, the elders/ bishops/pastors who exercised the ministry of oversight in the congregation were also accountable in a way which may be described as mutual submission.

Other examples also reflect the spirit of mutual submission. In Acts 6, the apostles proposed that the body of disciples choose "from among you seven men of good repute." The congregation approved the proposal, chose the seven, and "presented them to the apostles." According to verse 6, either the congregation or the apostles "laid their ,hands on them." In Acts 15:22 "the apostles and elders, with the whole church" came to agreement on the expected conduct for Gentile Christians. Together they chose to send representatives to the other congregations. This pattern of mutual submission should shape the relations between servant leaders. It also applies to servant leaders' relations with all members of the congregation. They should work them out in a way that fits the relation and ordering of everyone's gifts and ministries. It is not the same as:

--A hierarchical kind of authority in which one particular office or a descending ladder of offices mediates the corporate authority of the church to all other believers.
--A clerical type of authority in which the clergy alone as distinct from the laity mediate the corporate authority of the church.
--An egalitarian kind of authority in which each individual believer possesses equal authority regardless of particular gifts and ministries. In this case everyone becomes his or her own authority alone.

In summary, in the New Testament pattern of mutual submission, those who share in one ministry are called to discern as well as accept the authority of those who share in other ministries in the life of the church.

4. Leadership authority in the New Testament is both conferred and confirmed in its practice. Leadership authority in the New Testament is not only delegated by the authorizing person or group of people. Nor is it only legitimized by its exercise. In the first case authority would only be conferred; in the latter case, only functional. Because of its divine origin, its spiritual quality, and its servant style, leadership authority in the New Testament is both given to those who are to exercise it, and confirmed by the way they exercise it. Examples include:

--The baptism and testing of Jesus (Mark 1:11-13) and his entire ministry, crucifixion, and resurrection.
--Jesus' call to the Twelve and their ministries.
--The outpouring of the Holy Spirit on Pentecost and the missionary ministry of the church, according to the book of Acts.
--The apostle Paul's call on the Damascus road, his commissioning by the congregation at Antioch (Acts 13), and the confirmation of his apostolic authority in the exercise and results of his ministry (for example, 2 Corinthians 10-13).
--The appointment of the seven, Acts 6ff.
--Timothy, cf. 1 Timothy and 2 Timothy.
--Knowing prophets by their fruits, Matthew 7:15ff.

C. Gifts and Ministries of Women in the New Testament

In comparison to first-century society, the New Testament gives new dignity and responsibility to women. This is revealed in the way Jesus related to women. It is shown in the part they had in his ministry, in his teaching of women, in his calling them to tell others about him, and in their being the first witnesses to his resurrection.

This new dignity and responsibility of women continued in the New Testament church. Women were among those who received the outpouring of the Holy Spirit on Pentecost in Jerusalem, and in Cornelius's household. Peter explained Pentecost as the fulfillment of Joel's prophecy. This prophecy foretold the time when "your sons and daughters shall prophesy" (Acts 2:17). The experience of the New Age of the Spirit also belongs to the work of Christ: "For as many of you as were baptized into Christ have put on Christ. There is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female; for you are all one in Christ Jesus" (Galatians 3:27f). A new unity between men and women became a reality in the Christian church. It is based on the work of the Holy Spirit and oneness in Christ Jesus. Similarly, Ephesians 5:21 speaks of the mutual submission of men and women to each other in Christ.

1. There are several examples where women exercised significant gifts and ministries in the life of the New Testament church.

The four daughters of Philip "prophesied," Acts 21:8-9. According to 1 Corinthians 12, "prophesying" is one of the gifts of the Spirit for the common good of the church.

Phoebe was "a deaconess of the church at Cenchreae," Romans 16:1 (instead of "deaconess"; "deacon" would be the literal translation* of the Greek). Some translations prefer to use such terms as "servant" for Phoebe. However, they translate "minister" or "deacon" in every other Pauline passage which uses the same word. Thus, Phoebe should be seen as a "minister" or "deacon" in the usual sense of those words. Phoebe's ministry is also described with the Greek word "prostatis." This noun is not used in other Pauline writings, but the verb form of the word is used to mean "preside over." Whether "prostatis" means that Phoebe "presides over" a congregation as deacon is not absolutely clear. But she is more than a "helper" in the usual sense, because other members of the congregation are told to "help her in whatever she may require from you."

Romans 16:3 mentions "Prisca and Aquila" who are the apostle Paul's "co-workers." This term is used for Timothy in Romans 16:21, for Clement in Philippians 4:3, and others. This couple is mentioned in the New Testament six times. The wife's name comes first four times--Acts 18:18, 26; 2 Timothy 4:19; and here. Both "expounded the way of God" to Apollos in a more accurate way.

Together with her husband, Prism thus exercised a significant ministry in the life of the early church. We do not know further details about the ministry she and her husband shared.

In Romans 16:7, Paul sends greetings to "Andronicus and Junia, my relatives and my fellow prisoners who are eminent among the apostles, and who were in Christ before I was" (literal translation). Many versions translate Junias. The more likely translation is Junia. Junia is a common woman's name. Whether Andronicus and Junia were husband and wife as Prism and Aquila is not said. Both are mentioned as fellow prisoners and apostles.

Other examples could be mentioned. In addition to Phoebe, Prism, and likely Junia, seven additional women are singled out for greetings in Romans 16. We are not told what responsibilities they may have had.

According to 1 Corinthians 11, women prayed and prophesied in the congregation; according to Titus 2:3f., older women were to " ... teach what is good and so train the young women ...." First Timothy 3:11 refers either to the wives of deacons or to women who serve as deacons (in the second century church and later they were called deaconesses): the literal translation is simply "women likewise must be serious, no slanderers ...."

2. Together with these examples, several passages give instructions about women in the church and about the relation of women and men; for example:

According to 1 Corinthians 14:34, women are "to keep silence in the churches..." and "are not permitted to speak, but should be subordinate .... " The apostle Paul had just given instructions in 1 Corinthians 11 for women who pray and prophesy in the church to do so without removing their veils (as a sign of subordination). Keeping silence may therefore refer to particular misuses which had arisen in the churches, perhaps because of the new freedom in Christ. Or it may refer to a particular limitation such as teaching (some biblical interpreters connect this verse with 1 Timothy 2:12).

First Timothy 2:11f.: "Let a woman learn in quietness in all submission. I do not permit women to teach or to domineer over men." The verb used in this verse means "domineer" or "usurp authority over" more than simply "have authority over." It is used only here in the New Testament. Some students of the Bible understand this verse to apply to the cultural situation of the first century. They point out that women had no preparation for teaching. Furthermore, Jewish women had not been permitted to participate in the synagogue meetings--for Christian women coming from a Jewish background the shared Christian gatherings were a new experience that may have led to misuses. Other interpreters see the passage as a general rule for all time. They understand the difference of men's and women's roles to mean that women should not teach because that would be "exercising authority over" men. In either case, it apparently means that the question of whether women may teach because of their newfound freedom in Christ arose in the early church. According to this passage, Paul ("I do not permit ...") did not allow it. But according to Romans 16, he recognized Phoebe as a deacon; Prisca, together with her husband, as one of his co-workers; and likely Junia as an apostle.

Passages such as 1 Corinthians 11 and Ephesians 5 speak about the husband being the head of the wife. Ephesians 5, as well as Colossians 3, for example, speaks about wives being subject to their husbands. These passages are often connected to 1 Timothy 2:11 and 1 Corinthians 14:34 in the sense that women should not teach because that means exercising authority over men rather than being subject to them.

3. The 1973 Mennonite Church Study* goes into more detail about the roles of men and women in the life of the church. This study focuses on leadership and authority in the life of the church. Here the New Testament teaching and examples may be summarized as follows:

The headship of husbands in relation to wives is emphasized in 1 Corinthians 11 and Ephesians 5. The model of headship is Jesus Christ in his relation to the church. It is not the model of non-Christian society where there was a one-way relation of domination. Because Jesus Christ's relation to the church is the model for headship, to be "head" means to "love," to "give oneself for," to "care for" as Christ has done and continues to do for the church (Ephesians 5:23ff.). It does not mean to dominate. The New Testament does not admonish husbands to impose their headship on their wives, but to love their wives. This is their way of participating in mutual submission (Ephesians 5:21).

These and other passages instruct wives to be "subject" to their husbands. This did not mean that wives are to blindly obey their husbands because they have no other choice (for example, because that was the pattern in pagan or Jewish society). It means that they are called to willingly "respect" their husbands and be "subject as to the Lord." This is the wives' way of participating in mutual submission (Ephesians 5:21).

Some interpretations find in Galatians 3:27f. a higher expression of equality between women and men in Christ than in the passages which speak about husbands' headship and about women's remaining silent in the church. Different passages may in fact have different emphases. The New Testament, however, points both to a new and liberating unity between men and women in Christ, and to distinctive roles of each in relation to each other. We should therefore not read modern notions of individualistic equality, which rules out any significant distinctions between women and men, back into the biblical vision of unity in Christ. We should also stop reading many traditional understandings of social roles for women and men back into the biblical vision of how they relate to each other in their distinctiveness.

To summarize, the whole New Testament picture includes several things: a Christ-centered understanding of the relation between wives and husbands, the new unity of men and women in Christ Jesus, and women who exercised significant gifts and ministries in the New Testament church within certain limits. If women were not to teach at all, then teaching meant something different from prophesying and praying, from Phoebe's ministry as deacon, from the ministry Prisca shared with her husband, and from Junia's s likely apostleship. If women were not to teach in specific situations or because of misuses and excesses, some may have taught according to their particular gifts and ministries.

Bibliography

©1996-2008 by the Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. All rights reserved.

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MLA style: Mennonite Church. "New Testament Guidelines for Leadership and Authority in the Church." Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. 1981. Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 11 October 2008 <http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/L42.html/L42_3.html>

APA style: Mennonite Church. (1981). "New Testament Guidelines for Leadership and Authority in the Church." Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia Online. Retrieved 11 October 2008 <http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/L42.html/L42_3.html>